InSPIRE Publications

The InSPIRE project develops publications, webinars, videos, and other resources about low-impact solar development. This page contains publications and resources developed by the InSPIRE project. Additional resources can be found in the Data Portal.

Synergies and trade-offs of multi-usesolar landscapes

Nature Sustainability (2025)

Research on multi-use solar—combining solar energy with agriculture (agrivoltaics) or natural vegetation (ecovoltaics)—is developing rapidly,but interdisciplinary integration is needed to better address managementissues and to guide future research. Agrivoltaics allows farmers to developand manage microclimates, which can help to retain or expand agricultural production in the context of changing climate and land-water limitations. However, improvements in food–energy production and other co-benefitsare often site-specific, depending on background climate, soil conditionsand system design. To optimize multi-use systems, it is essential to considerlocal economic impacts, ecosystem services and stakeholder perspectives indesign and implementation.

Impacts of year-to-year weather variability and inter-panel spacing on agrivoltaic crop yields in Massachusetts

Agroforestry Systems (2024)

This study investigated the impact of adding spacing between adjacent solar panels in a fixed-tilt system to improve light diffusion to crops. For four crops (broccoli, peppers, kale, Swiss chard) grown across 3 years in an agrivoltaic system in Massachusetts, we found that only kale had a linearly increasing trend as the inter-panel spacing increased from 0.6 m to 1.5 m (2 ft to 5 ft). However, there were significant year-to-year differences in the yield of agrivoltaic versus control fields. Agrivoltaic and full sun fields produced equivalent yields in a hot, dry year, whereas the full-sun control beds produced more salable yield for all four crops in a warm, wet year.

Agrivoltaics as a climate-smart and resilient solution for midday depression in photosynthesis in dryland regions

npj Sustainable Agriculture (2025)

This study evaluated the implications of an agrivoltaics approach on the microclimate growing conditions of crop species. Agrivoltaics mitigated the midday depression in photosynthesis experienced by crops grown in hot and arid environments, which led to reduced water stress, equal or greater daily carbon assimilation, and equal or greater yield across all crops. Our findings indicate agrivoltaics could be a climate-smart agricultural approach, and the diurnal resolution of our data points towards mechanisms for optimizing agrivoltaic designs for food and energy production and water savings.

Pollinator habitat in solar facilities has potential to support high diversity of bee species

Environmental Research Communications (2025)

Recent InSPIRE research tested commercially available and bespoke pollinator mixes for establishment success in Minnesota solar facilities and identified 14 forb species that established successfully over three years of the experiment. We ask an important follow-up question: how many native bee species, and which bee species, are these 14 plant species capable of supporting? We used a plant-bee interaction data set from Minnesota to calculate the number of bee species that would be supported by the 14 plant species for the duration of their flight seasons using a published bee species richness function. We found 122 unique bee species (24% of Minnesota diversity) may be supported for their entire flight seasons by the 14 focal plants.

Dual Land Use for Agriculture and Solar Power Production: Overview and Performance of Agrivoltaic Systems

International Energy Agency PVPS Technical Report (2025)

This report provides a detailed analysis of agrivoltaic systems, exploring their technical performance, modelling approaches, and operational challenges. By addressing these critical factors, it serves as a comprehensive guide to improving efficiency and ensuring transparent, replicable outcomes for agrivoltaic installations worldwide. As agrivoltaics continues to gain traction worldwide, this report serves as an essential resource for policymakers, researchers, and industry stakeholders looking to harness the full potential of agrivoltaic systems.

Little prairie under the panel: testing native pollinator habitat seed mix establishment at three utility-scale solar sites in Minnesota

Environmental Research Communications (2024)

This study systematically assessed the growth and establishment of eight different seed mixes planted at three utility-scale solar sites in Minnesota. Percent native coverage under the PV arrays rose 5- to 8-fold for each of the three sites from over the course of the study, while the coverage of weeds decreased for all three sites over the same period. Percent native coverage varied by seed mix over the project years, but every seed mix experienced a higher percent native coverage year after year under the PV arrays. Based on these findings, native pollinator vegetation can establish over time at solar arrays, and it can be suitable for creating habitat at utility-scale solar sites.

Multi-year analysis of physical interactions between solar PV arrays and underlying soil-plant complex in vegetated utility-scale systems

Applied Energy (2024)

In this study we use power output data coupled with microclimatic measurements in temperate climates to assess the potential impact of vegetation on PV generation at three utility-scale solar sites. No significant cooling of PV panels or increased power production was observed in PV arrays with underlying vegetation. Fine soil particle fraction was the highest in soils within PV arrays with the vegetation which was attributable to the lowest wind speeds from the compounding suppression of wind by vegetation and PV arrays. Soil moisture and soil nutrient response to re-vegetation varied between PV facilities, which could be attributed to differing soil texture.

County Land-Use Regulations for Solar Energy Development in Colorado

NREL Technical Report (2024)

In this report, we present a comprehensive review of county-level policies across Colorado that regulate ground-mounted or free-standing solar, as opposed to rooftop or building-integrated solar, for both utility-scale and distributed applications. This review includes both solar-specific ordinances as well as general land-use code that might be applicable in counties without solar-specific policies. This report provides an accessible reference for stakeholders interested in identifying counties with particular regulations or in analyzing the diversity of regulations across Colorado.

Adapting Agrivoltaics for Solar Mini-Grids in Haiti

NREL technical report (2024)

As part of the Energy Access Partnership for Haiti with the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) performed an initial feasibility analysis and stakeholder engagement project to evaluate the potential for agrivoltaics in mini-grid contexts in Haiti. The analysis considered typical 100-kW and larger 1-MW mini-grids in towns across Haiti and developed two example agrivoltaic archetypes based on key local inputs, including solar irradiance, production data from the agricultural census, market prices, stakeholder interviews, and existing agrivoltaic research.

Publication is also available in Haitian

If you build it, will they come? Insect community responses to habitat establishment at solar energy facilities in Minnesota, USA

Environmental Research Letters (2023)

We conducted a longitudinal field study across 5 years (2018–2022) to understand how insect communities responded to newly established habitat on solar energy facilities in agricultural landscapes by evaluating (1) temporal changes in flowering plant abundance and diversity; (2) temporal changes in insect abundance and diversity; and (3) the pollination services of solar-pollinator habitat by comparing pollinator visitation to agricultural fields near solar-pollinator habitat with other agricultural field locations. We found increases over time for all habitat and biodiversity metrics: floral rank, flowering plant species richness, insect group diversity, native bee abundance, and total insect abundance, with the most noticeable temporal increases in native bee abundance.

Environmental Co‐Benefits of Maintaining Native Vegetation With Solar Photovoltaic Infrastructure

Earth’s Future (2023)

We monitored the microclimate, soil moisture, panel temperature, electricity generation and soil properties at a utility‐scale solar facility in Minnesota with different site management practices. We found the compounding effect of photovoltaic arrays and vegetation may homogenize soil moisture distribution and provide greater soil temperature buffer against extreme temperatures. The vegetated solar areas had significantly higher soil moisture, carbon, and other nutrients compared to bare solar areas.

Vegetation Management Cost and Maintenance Implications of Different Ground Covers at Utility-Scale Solar Sites

Sustainability (2023)

We collected data from utility-scale solar PV O&M stakeholders, including site owners/operators, O&M service providers, vegetation maintenance companies, and solar graziers, on costs and activities associated with vegetation management at low-impact, agrivoltaic, and conventional PV sites. We detail the per-activity and total O&M costs for vegetation management at PV sites with different ground covers and management practices, providing the most comprehensive and detailed assessment of PV vegetation O&M costs to date.

Grassland productivity responds unexpectedly to dynamic light and soil water environments induced by photovoltaic arrays

Ecosphere (2022)

Here, we evaluate seasonal patterns of soil moisture (SM) and diurnal variation in incident sunlight (photosynthetic photon flux density [PPFD]) in a single‐axis‐tracking agrivoltaic system established in a formerly managed semiarid C3 grassland in Colorado.

The 5 Cs of Agrivoltaic Success Factors in the United States: Lessons From the InSPIRE Research Study

NREL Technical Report (2022)

This synthesis aims to highlight the technical and non-technical insights from InSPIRE agrivoltaic field research sites from 2015-2021 to support i) appropriate deployment of agrivoltaic projects; ii) more successful research on agrivoltaics; and iii) more effective partnerships on agrivoltaic projects.

ASTRO: Facilitating Advancements in Low-Impact Solar Research, Deployment, and Dissemination

NREL Technical Report (2022)

The Agriculture and Solar Together: Research Opportunities (ASTRO) advisory group members come from across the United States and represent leading solar industry partners, state agencies, vegetation management companies, and other organizations focused on research, food and agriculture, and the environment. The ASTRO group of engaged advisors is a complementary combination of organizations creating positive feedback loops that spark and solidify new connections, accelerate information dissemination, and magnify the impact of the InSPIRE project and associated low-impact solar research initiatives.

Opportunities for agrivoltaic systems to achieve synergistic food-energy-environmental needs and address sustainability goals

Frontiers in sustainable food systems (2022)

The purpose of this paper is to systematically synthesize the potential ecosystem services of agrivoltaics and summarize how these development strategies could address several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Combined land use of solar infrastructure and agriculture for socioeconomic and environmental co-benefits in the tropics

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2021)

Using Indonesia as a model system, we investigated the land use, energy, greenhouse gas emissions, economic feasibility, and the environmental co-benefits associated with off-grid solar PV when combined with high value crop cultivation.

Modeling the ecosystem services of native vegetation management practices at solar energy facilities in the Midwestern United States

Ecosystem Services (2021)

We applied the InVEST modeling framework to investigate the potential response of four ecosystem services (carbon storage, pollinator supply, sediment retention, and water retention) to native grassland habitat restoration at 30 solar facilities across the Midwest United States.

Effects of Revegetation on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Solar Photovoltaic Infrastructure

Frontiers in Environmental Science (2020)

This study quantifies the extent of agriculture in the United States that could benefit from pollinator habitat being planted at existing or planned solar facilities. Over 3,500 km2 (850,000 acres) of agricultural land were identified that could benefit.

Agrivoltaics provide mutual benefits across the food–energy–water nexus in drylands

Nature Sustainability (2019)

This study takes an integrative approach, monitoring microclimatic conditions, PV panel temperature, soil moisture and irrigation water use, plant ecophysiological function and plant biomass production within an Agrivoltaics installation in Arizona to quantify trade-offs. Shading by the PV panels provides multiple additive and synergistic benefits, including reduced plant drought stress, greater food production and reduced PV panel heat stress.

Techno–ecological synergies of solar energy for global sustainability